Conversations with Laureates
Born on April 10, 1927 in New York, New York
Married in 1961 to Perola Zaltzman
Education
1945 - 1948 B.S., Major: Zoology and Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
1950 - 1952 M.S., Department of Zoology, University of Florida (L. Berner, Research Advisor).
1952 - 1957 Ph.D., Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Research on a permease for hexose transport, J.F. Hogg, Research Advisor).
1957 - 1959 Postdoctoral Fellow of the American Cancer Society (Sponsor: Dr. DeWitt Stetten, Jr.), National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism, and Digestive Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
1959 - 1960 Postdoctoral Fellow of the Public Health Service, Section of Metabolic Enzymes, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
Brief Chronology of Employment
1945 - 1948 Teaching Assistant, Department of Zoology, University of Florida.
1950 - 1952 Research Associate, Nutrition Laboratory, University of Florida.
1952 - 1957 Teaching Fellow and Research Fellow, Departmentof Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan.
1960 - 1962 Research Biochemist, Section of Metabolic Enzymes, National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
1962 - 1966 Chief of Section of Biochemical Genetics, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
1966 - present Research Biochemist, Chief of Laboratory of Biochemical Genetics, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
Important Groups
"The dominant idea in molecular biology is that DNA carries information encoded in the form of specific sequences of nucleotides which determines the amino acid sequences of proteins…Exactly how this specification is accomplished is the main problem of present-day molecular biology, and its solution, the breaking of the genetic code, is the main ambition of many workers in the field."– quote by Sydney Brenner at the 1961 symposium at Cold Spring Harbor, from The Eighth Day of Creation by Horace Freeland Judson.
The groups listed below independently and collaboratively worked on solving the mysteries of protein synthesis, setting the stage for Nirenberg's breakthrough. They generally agreed that ribosomes were the site of protein synthesis but had differing opinions regarding the "intermediate" or messenger that carried the information necessary for protein synthesis.
The Boston Group at Massachusetts General included Paul Zamecnik and Mahlon Hoagland.
The Cambridge Group included Francis Crick, Sydney Brenner, and John Kendrew.
The Cal Tech Group included Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl.
The Harvard Group included James Watson and Ernst Freese, then Meselson and Stahl.
The Paris Group, at the Institute Pasteur, included Francois Jacob, Jacques Monod, Andre Lwoff, and for a time, Arthur Beck Pardee. The PaJaMo experiment came from the Paris group. Monod and Jacob coined the term "messenger RNA."
Important Places
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is where Nirenberg has spent his entire career, which began in 1957.
The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) is the section of the NIH where Nirenberg currently works.
Important Occurrences
Nirenberg and the NIH
The stimulating atmosphere at NIH and the camaraderie and support of his fellow researchers there helped Nirenberg in his efforts to crack the genetic code. "It lifts the heart to look closely at one institution created by the United States Government which has been achieving, since its outset, one spectacular, stunning success after another." —Lewis Thomas, foreword to NIH: An Account of Research in Its Laboratories and Clinics, DeWitt Stetten, Jr., Editor
Marshall Nirenberg arrived at the NIH in 1957 during the institution's "golden years" of expansion. From its beginnings as the one-room Hygienic Laboratory in the late 19th century to an $840 million enterprise by the late 1950s, the NIH saw the country through anthrax outbreaks, catastrophic influenza epidemics, and emerging health issues of the World War II period. In addition to its active role in responding to public health needs, the NIH was evolving into a superb training ground for biomedical research, attracting bright, young investigators into its labs—many going on to assume scientific leadership positions outside the walls of the NIH. Today, 75 buildings on 300 acres in Bethesda are home to the NIH, which now has an annual budget of more than $20 billion.
NIH scientists are relatively free from the administrative and teaching obligations of their academically based peers and are not involved in grant-writing, all of which allows them more time to focus on their research. The atmosphere at the NIH in the early years of Marshall Nirenberg's tenure was especially conducive to cross-pollination of ideas between disciplines.
"Perhaps it was just that NIH was smaller then, but geneticists and biochemists, crystallographers and physical chemists, endocrinologists and microbiologists were not only talking to one another, they were tennis partners and friends." — Robert Martin quote in NIH: An Account of Research in Its Laboratories and Clinics, DeWitt Stetten, Jr., Editor
Strongly influenced by a course on phage genetics and ideas represented in the book, The Chemical Basis of Heredity—which has been called the "New Testament" for the second generation of molecular biologists—Nirenberg's interest in molecular biology developed early in his NIH career.
Nirenberg faced stiff competition in the race to determine the genetic code. But with the technical assistance from other NIH scientists in "a remarkable esprit de corps and round-the-clock collaboration," he and his collaborator, J. Heinrich Matthaei, succeeded.
"Nirenberg has never failed to acknowledge great gratitude for this support. And he has observed that he 'discovered to his horror that he liked to compete.'"— Who Wrote the Book of Life? A History of the Genetic Code, by Lily E. Kay
The Race to "Crack the Genetic Code"
Marshall Nirenberg, as a biochemist, was a virtual unknown in the inner circles of molecular biology. His success in breaking the genetic code took the scientific world by complete surprise.
In the years following Watson and Crick's determination of DNA's double helix structure, the quest to understand the mechanism of protein synthesis proceeded as a logical next step in labs throughout the world. One key to achieving this goal was deciphering the code contained in the sequence of nitrogenous bases within the nucleic acid structure.
In 1961, Nirenberg and Matthaei published their discovery that the base sequence UUU (uracil) coded for phenylalanine, throwing down the gauntlet to the scientific community to determine the remainder of the code. Severo Ochoa and his colleagues at New York University joined the pursuit, sparking some of the most intense competition ever in the history of science.
Many of Nirenberg's fellow researchers at the NIH temporarily suspended their own work to lend a hand in his effort. Their cooperation has been lauded as the "NIH's finest hour."
"The work that I was doing in the late '50s enabled me to synthesize RNA polymers for my colleague, Marshall Nirenberg down the hall, who used them to do the work that he did in deciphering the genetic code." — Maxine Singer, from an interview
Marshall Nirenberg, as a biochemist, was a virtual unknown in the inner circles of molecular biology, and in fact had been denied attendance at a Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory symposium shortly before his "UUU" announcement in Moscow. The fact that he worked at the NIH, an institution that had not yet achieved its present level of esteem, contributed to this lack of recognition. Nirenberg's success in breaking the genetic code took the scientific world by complete surprise.
"As a biochemist from the NIH, unknown or ignored by the molecular biologists attending the meetings, Nirenberg spoke to a nearly empty room. Fortunately, shortly after his talk, Francis Crick, who recognized the importance of the work, arranged for Nirenberg to present his work again, to a substantial audience." — Mahlon Hoagland, from Toward the Habit of Truth.
Matthew Meselson, when asked years later whether Nirenberg was now a "member of the club" responded, "I don't know…Anyway–sure...in a sense, he has a club of his own."
Cracking the Genetic Code–The Science
Understanding Nirenberg's accomplishment—cracking the genetic code—requires a basic knowledge of the biological "players" in the making of a protein and some appreciation of the scientists' tricks of the trade. Here is a start…
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
DNA is located within the nucleus of each cell and contains instructions for making each of the 20,000 types of protein molecules found in the human body. When Watson and Crick elucidated the double helical structure of DNA, they set the stage for yet another challenge—to determine how DNA actually orchestrates the making of a protein.
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
The "information of life" flows in only one direction—that is, from DNA to RNA to protein. In a process known as "transcription," the DNA helix unwinds and a new molecule, messenger RNA (mRNA), is made from the exposed DNA template. The mRNA travels outside the cell nucleus to the "protein factory," or ribosome, located in the cytoplasm, where it interacts with small adaptor or transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules that carry amino acids for protein synthesis. Transfer RNA molecules recognize the 3-letter nucleotide sequence that corresponds with a particular amino acid, and attach it during the process known as translation.
Nirenberg and Matthaei discovered the first of these 3-letter nucleotide sequences (codons) when they determined that three uracil nucleotides, notated as "UUU," resulted in the incorporation of the amino acid phenylalanine. Their experiments involved incubating RNA samples with a "soup" (cell-free extract) of bacterial ribosomes, enzymes, ATP (an energy source), tRNA, and amino acids tagged with carbon-14 for later detection.
They were successful when, by chance, they added synthetic RNA composed of a long chain of uracil molecules (polyuridylic acid). In response, the ribosomes produced a long chain of the amino acid phenylalanine, creating, in effect, the synthetic protein polyphenylalanine!
The concept of using RNAs of predetermined sequence, such as the artificial UUU molecule, suddenly opened up a whole new method for deciphering the genetic code. Scientists in labs throughout the world joined the race to uncover the rest of the genetic code.
The Fifth International Congress of Biochemistry—Nirenberg's Moscow Announcement
Less than a decade after Stalin's death and concurrent with Khrushchev's construction of the Berlin Wall, Moscow hosted the Fifth International Congress of Biochemistry in 1961. Marshall Nirenberg unveiled his stunning discovery in Moscow, setting off a worldwide race to determine the rest of the genetic code, and ushering in a new era for Soviet molecular biologists.
"We are coming to the end of an era in molecular biology. If the DNA structure was the end of the beginning, the discovery of Nirenberg and Matthaei is the beginning of the end." — quote by Francis Crick, in his 1962 Nobel address, Who Wrote the Book of Life? A History of the Genetic Code.
Several thousand participants from all over the world arrived that summer, to learn, to share, and to sample the flavor of Soviet science, which was surprisingly still under the influence…some would say corruption…of Lysenkoism.
"The assertion that there is, in an organism, some minute particles, genes, responsible for the transmission of heredity traits is pure fantasy without any basis in science." — quote by Isaak Izrailevich Prezent, Lysenko theorist, in The Eighth Day of Creation.
Trofim Denisovich Lysenko's followers opposed molecular biology and held to the anti-Mendelian notion called Lamarckism—the refuted belief that characteristics gained by interaction with one's environment could be passed on through heredity. Under Lysenko's power, dissident scientists—among them Zhores Alexandrovich Medvedev, author of a book about the horrors of science under Lysenko—had even been confined to insane asylums as punishment for expressing their views.
"It was only eight or ten years later, when I read Medvedev's book about Lysenko, that I realized how perfectly frightful the conditions for research were for them then." — quote by Max Perutz, in The Eighth Day of Creation
The Fifth International Congress of Biochemistry highlighted the scientific advances of the West—Nirenberg's cracking of the genetic code, for one—in a way that could not be ignored, providing Soviet scientists who opposed it with a new foothold in their struggle against Lysenkoist dogma.
"And because of DNA and all of its consequences that were becoming clear then, and that the congress made us realize, molecular biologists in the Soviet Union started to be the first group to do battle against Lysenko. [The Soviet molecular biologists] used the opportunity of the Biochemical Congress to make quite clear their disagreement with Lysenko and with his whole biology." — quote by Medvedev, in The Eighth Day of Creation
A Breakthrough Technique Revealed—Sixth International Congress of Biochemistry—1964
When Marshall Nirenberg made his understated announcement of cracking the genetic code at the Fifth International Congress of Biochemistry in 1961, it meant that for the first time the composition of base pairs coding for one particular amino acid was known. What had yet to be revealed, however, was the recipe of nucleotides required for each of the other 19 amino acids—the specific nucleotide sequence—and whether any "overlaps" or redundancies existed. The "door" to the genetic code was ajar—but not fully open.
Deciphering the rest of the genetic code proceeded slowly. Technological limitations plagued the researchers who sought these answers. The development of a novel "triplet binding assay" by Nirenberg and a research fellow named Philip Leder proved to be a stunning breakthrough. They made the announcement at the Sixth International Congress of Biochemistry in 1964.
"I began to talk to Marshall, who was young and enthusiastic, and…I became very excited about the work that he was doing…I almost immediately decided that this was the fellow I really would like to spend my time with." —Quote by Philip Leder from A Century of DNA by Portugal and Cohen.
With emerging scientific knowledge as their foundation, Leder and Nirenberg, using special filter paper, found a way to analyze the ribosome, nucleotide triplet, and tRNA/amino acid complexes involved in protein synthesis.
"I walked into [Nirenberg's] little office, I was scarcely able to contain myself, and I asked him how long he thought an oligonucleotide had to be in order to get recognition… 'Would you believe six, would you believe five, would you believe three?'…And he nearly jumped out of his skin."— Quote by Philip Leder from A Century of DNA by Portugal and Cohen
Leder's development of a more sophisticated apparatus based on the filtering technique streamlined the process, and all 64 codons (base triplets) were determined within five years of Nirenberg's initial publication.
Societies
American Philosophical Society
American Society of Biological Chemistry
American Chemical Society
American Neurochemistry Society
Biophysical Society
American Association for the Advancement of Science
European Academy of Sciences and Arts
Harvey Society
Society for Neuroscience
The Society for Developmental Biology
Washington Academy of Sciences
Federation of American Scientists, Sponsor
International Society for Neuroimmunomodulation, Board of Scientific Advisors
Current Editorial Boards
Molecular Neurobiology
Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology
Journal of Neurogenetics
Korean Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
Other Current Activities
Board of Scientific Advisors, Beckman Institute, University of Illinois, 1987-Current.
Research Professor in Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Maryland, 1995-Current.
Member of the Executive Committee, and member of the Scientific Advisory Council, Elbe International Neuroscience Program.
Adjunct Professor, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, George Washington University Medical Center.
Member of Scientific Advisory Board, Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute.
Honors
National Academy of Sciences, USA
National Academy of Medicine, USA
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
American Neurological Association
Leopoldina Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher
Pontifical Academy of Sciences, the Vatican
European Academy of Sciences and Arts
Molecular Biology Award, National Academy of Sciences, 1962
Award in the Biological Sciences, Washington Academy of Sciences, 1962.
Modern Medicine Award, 1963
Paul Lewis Award in Enzyme Chemistry, American Chemical Society, 1964
Award from the Department of Health, Education, Welfare, 1964.
Harrison Howe Award, Rochester Branch of the American Chemical Society, 1964
National Medal of Science, President of the United States, 1965
Doctor of Science, Honorary, University of Michigan, 1965
Doctor of Science, Honorary, Yale University, 1965
Doctor of Science, Honorary, University of Chicago, 1965
John Young Award, Orlando, Florida, 1965
Hildebrand Award, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1966
Doctor of Science, Honorary, University of Windsor, Ontario, Canada, 1966
Research Corporation Award, 1966
Doctor of Science, Honorary, University of Pennsylvania, 1967
American College of Physicians Award, 1967
Robbins Lecturer, Pomona College, Claremont, California, 1967
Gairdner Foundation Award, Toronto, Canada, 1967
Prix Charles Leopold Meyer, French Academy of Sciences, 1967
Joseph Priestly Award, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 1968
Doctor of Science, Honorary, Harvard University, 1968
Franklin Medal, University of Pennsylvania, 1968
Distinguished Service Medal, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1968
Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize, Columbia University, 1968
Lasker Award, 1968
Medal, President of the United States, 1968
Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for deciphering the
Genetic code (Shared with Gobind Khorana & Robert Holley), 1968
Doctor of Science, Honorary, University of Florida, 1969
Doctor of Science, Honorary, George Washington University, 1972
Doctor of Science, Honorary, University of Pavia, Italy, 1973
City of Peace Award, 1975
Doctor of Science, Honorary, Weizmann Institute, Israel, 1978
George Cotzias Memorial Award Lecture, American Society of Neurology, Toronto, Canada, 1981
A. Ross McIntyre Award, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska, 1983
Doctor of Science, Honorary, State University of New York at Albany, 1986
Doctor of Science, Honorary, West Virginia State College, 1991
Doctor of Science, Honarary, Union University, Albany College of Pharmacy, Albany, New York, 1996.
Published Work
1. Nirenberg, M.W. and Hogg, J.F.: On the mode of hexose uptake by ascites tumor cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 78 6210-6211 (1956).
2. Nirenberg, M.W. and Hogg, J.F.: Inhibition of anaerobic glycolysis in Ehrlich ascites tumor cells by 2-deoxy-D- glucose. Cancer Research, 18: 518-521 (1958).
3. Nirenberg, M.W. and Hogg J.F.: Hexose transport in ascites tumor cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 80: 4407-4412 (1958).
4. Nirenberg, M.W.: An enzymic defect in ascites-tumor cells. Biochem. Bioph_ys. Acta, 30: 203-204 (1958).
5. Nirenberg, M.W.: A biochemical characteristic of ascites tumor cells. J. Biol. Chem., 234: 3088-3093 (1959).
6. Nirenberg, M.W. and Jakoby, W.B.: Enzymatic utilization of g-hydroxybutyric acid. J. Biol. Chem., 235: 954-960 (1960).
7. Nirenberg, M.W.: The induction of two enzymes by one inducer; a test case for shared genetic information. Fed. Proc., 19: 42 (1960).
8. Nirenberg, M.W. and Jakoby, W.B.: On the sites of attachment and reaction of aldehyde dehydrogenases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 46: 206-212 (1960).
9. Nirenberg, M.W. and Jakoby, W.B.: Constraints in the determination of active-centre topography. Nature, 188: 747-748 (1960).
10. Nirenberg, M.W. and Matthaei, H.: The dependence of cell-free protein synthesis in E. coli upon naturally occurring or synthetic template RNA. in Biological Structure and Function at the Molecular Level, Engelhardt, V.A. (Ed.), The MacMillan Co., New York, Proc. Fif th Int. Cong. Biochem. , Vol. I, Moscow, 1961, pp. 184-189.
11. Matthaei, H. and Nirenberg, M.W.: The dependence of cell-free protein synthesis in E. coli upon RNA prepared from ribosomes. Biochem. Birophys. Res. Commun., 4: 404-408 (1961).
12. Matthaei, J.H. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Characteristics and stabilization of DNAase sensitive protein synthesis in E. coli extracts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 47: 1580-1588 (1961).
13. Nirenberg, M.W. and Matthaei, J.H.: The dependence of cell-free protein synthesis in E. coli upon naturally occurring or synthetic polyribonucleotides. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 47: 1588-1602 (1961).
14. Martin, R.C., Matthaei, J.H., Jones, O.W. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Ribonucleotide composition of the genetic code. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 6: 410-414 (1961/62).
15. Matthaei, J.H., Jones, O.W., Martin, R.G. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Characteristics and composition of RNA coding units. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 48: 666-677 (1962).
16. Tsugita, A., Fraenkel-Conrat, H., Nirenberg, M.W. and Matthaei, J.H.: Demonstration of the messenger role of viral RNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 48: 846-853 (1962).
17. Barondes, S.H. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Fate of synthetic polynucleotide directing cell-free protein synthesis. I. Characteristics of degradation. Science, 138: 810-813 (1962).
18. Barondes, S.H. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Fate of synthetic polynucleotide directing cell-free protein synthesis. II. Association with ribosomes. Science, 138: 813-817 (1962).
19. Nirenberg, M.W., Matthaei, J.H. and Jones, O.W.: An intermediate in the biosynthesis of polyphenylalanine directed by synthetic template RNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 48: 104-109 (1962).
20. Jones, O.W., Jr. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Qualitative survey of RNA codewords. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 48: 2115-2123 (1962).
21. Nirenberg, M.W., Matthaei, J.H., Jones, O.W., Martin, R.G. and Barondes, S.H.: Approximation of genetic code via cell-free protein synthesis directed by template RNA. Fed. Proc. Symp., 22: 55-61 (1963).
22. Nirenberg, M.W.: Cell-free protein synthesis directed by messenger RNA. in Methods in Enzymology, Eds. S.P. Colowick and N.A. Kaplan (1963), Academic Press, New York, Vol. 6, pp. 17-23.
23. Nirenberg, M.W. and Jones, O.W., Jr.: The current status of the RNA code in Symposium on informational Macromolecules, H. Vogel (Ed.), 1963, Academic Press, New York, New York, pp. 451-465.
24. Singer, M.F., Jones, O.W. and Nirenberg, M.W.: The effect of secondary structure on the template activity of polyribonucleotides. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 49: 392-399 (1963).
25. Nirenberg, M.W., Jones, O.W., Leder, P., Clark, B.F.C., Sly, W.S. and Pestka, S.: On the coding of genetic information. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. on Quant. Biol. , 28: 549-557 (1963) .
26. Leder, P., Clark, B.F.C., Sly, W.S., Pestka, S. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Cell-free peptide synthesis dependent upon synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 50: 1135-1143 (1963).
27. Nirenberg, M.W.: The Genetic Code: II. Scientific American, 208: 80-94 (1963).
28. Nirenberg, M.W.: Nucleic acids in relation to the coding of genetic information in Brain Function, Vol. 11: RNA and Brain Function; Memory and Learning. Mary A.B. Brazier (Ed.) . UCLA Forum held in 1962, Univ. of Calif. Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, pp. 5-28, (1964).
29. Bryne, R., Levin, J.C., Bladen, H.A. and Nirenberg, M.W.: The in vitro formation of a DNA-ribosome complex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 52: 140-148 (1964).
30. Eiserling, F., Levin, J.G., Byrne, R., Karlsson, U., Nirenberg, M.W. and Sjb strand, F.S.: Polyribosomes and DNA-dependent amino acid incorporation in Escherichia coli extracts. J. Mol. Biol., 10: 536-540 (1964).
31. Nirenberg, M.W. and Leder, P.: RNA codewords and protein synthesis. I. The effect of trinucleotides upon the binding of sRNA to ribosomes. Science, 145: 1399-1407 (1964).
32. Leder, P. and Nirenberg, M.W.: RNA codewords and protein synthesis. II. Nucleotide sequence of a valine RNA codeword. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 52: 420-427 (1964).
33. Leder, P. and Nirenberg, M.W.: RNA codewords and protein synthesis. III. On the nucleotide sequence of a cysteine and a leucine RNA codeword. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 52: 1521-1529 (1964).
34. Nirenberg, M.W. Protein synthesis and the RNA code. in Harvey Lectures, Series 59, pp. 155-185 (1964).
35. Aach, H.G., Funatsu, G., Nirenberg, M.W. and Fraenkel-Conrat, H.: Further attempts to characterize products of TMV-RNA-directed protein synthesis. Biochemistry, 3: 1362-1366 (1964).
36. Bernfield, M.R. and Nirenberg, M.W.: RNA codewords and protein synthesis. IV. The nucleotide sequences of multiple codewords for phenylalanine, serine, leucine and proline. Science, 147: 479-484 (1965).
37. Pestka, S., Marshall, R. and Nirenberg, M.W.: RNA codewords and protein synthesis. V. Effect of streptomycin on the formation of ribosome sRNA complexes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 53: 639-646 (1965).
38. Bladen, H.A., Byrne, R., Levin, J.G. and Nirenberg, M.W.: An electron microscopic study of a DNA-ribosome complex formed in vitro. J. Mol. Biol., 11: 78-83 (1965).
39. Millar, D.B.S., III, Cukier, R. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Interaction of E. coli ribosomal RNA with synthetic polynucleotides. Sedimentation properties, and thermal stability as measured by fluorescence polarization. Biochemistry, 4: 976-985 (1965).
40. Trupin, J.S., Rottman, F.M., Brimacombe, R.L.C., Leder, P., Bernfield, M.R. and Nirenberg, M.W.: RNA codewords and protein synthesis. VI. On the nucleotide sequence of degenerate codeword sets for isoleucine, tryosine, asparagine, and lysine. Proc. NaLl. Acad. Sci. USA, 53: 807-811 (1965).
41. Nirenberg, M., Leder, P., Bernfield, M., Brimacombe, R., Trupin, J., Rottman, F. and O'Neal, C.: RNA codewords and protein synthesis. VII. On the general nature of the RNA code. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 53: 1161-1168 (1965).
42. Brimacombe, R., Trupin, J., Nirenberg, M., Leder, P., Bernfield, M. and Jaouni, T.: RNA codewords and protein synthesis. VIII. Nucleotide sequences of synonym codons for arginine, valine, cysteine, and alanine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 54: 954-960 (1965).
43. Kellogg, D.A., Doctor, B.P., Loebel, J.E. and Nirenberg, M.W.: RNA codons and protein synthesis. IX. Synonym codon recognition by multiple species of valine-, alanine-, and methionine-sRNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 55: 912-919 (1966).
44. Trupin, J., Dickerman, H., Nirenberg, M. and Weissbach, H.: Formylation of amino acid analogues of methionine sRNA. Biochem. Bioph_ys. Res. Common., 24: 50-55 (1966).
45. Jones, O.W., Jr. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Degeneracy in the amino acid code. Biochem. Bioph_ys. Acta., 119: 400-406 (1966).
46. Grunberger, D., O'Neal, C. and Nirenberg, M.: Stimulation of amino acid incorporation into protein by polyuridylic-8azaguanylic acid. Biochem. Biophys. Acta., 119: 581-585 (1966).
47. Anderson, W.F. and Nirenberg, M.: The genetic code and protein synthesis. in HancZbook of Biochem. and Biophys. H.C. Damm, P.K. Besch, A.J. Goldwyn (Eds.), Cleveland and New York, World Publishing Company, pp. 96-108 (1966).
48. Pestka, S. and Nirenberg, M.: Regulatory mechanisms and protein synthesis recognition. X. Codon recognition of 30 S ribosomes. J. Mol. Biol., 21: 145-171 (1966).
49. Rottman, F. and Nirenberg, M.: RNA codons and protein synthesis. XI. Template activity of modified RNA codons. J. Mol. Biol., 21: 555-570 (1966).
50. Nirenberg, M., Caskey, T., Marshall, R., Brimacombe, R., Kellogg, D., Doctor, B., Hatfield, D., Levin, J., Rottman, F., Pestka, S., Wilcos, M. and Anderson, F.: The RNA code and protein synthesis. Cold Spring HarborSymp. on Quant. Biol., 31: 11-24 (1966).
51. Pestka, S. and Nirenberg, M.: Codeword recognition of 30 S ribosomes. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. on Quant. Biol., 31: 641-656 (1966).
52. Marshall, R.E., Caskey, C.T. and Nirenberg, M.: RNA codewords and protein synthesis. XII. Fine structure of RNA codewords recognized by bacterial, amphibian, and mammalian transfer RNA. Science, 155: 820-826 (1967).
53. Nirenberg, M.: The genetic code in The Neurosciences, Quarton, G.C., Melnechuk, T. and Schmitt, F.O. (Eds.), New York, The Rockefeller University Press, pp. 143-152 (1967).
54A. Nirenberg, M.: Man's power to shape his own biologic destiny will society be prepared to use it wisely? Quarterly Bulletin of Research Corporation, Spring 1967. (Part reproduced as an editorial in Science).
54B. Nirenberg, M.: Will society be prepared? Science, 157: 633 (1967).
55. Nirenberg, M.W., Caskey, C.T. and Levin, J.G.: RNA codon recognition. Seventh International Congress of Biochemistry, (Japan) Suppl. 1, p. 1068 (1967).
56. Kano-Sueoka, T., Nirenberg, M. and Sueoka, N.: Effect of bacteriophage infection upon the specificity of leucine transfer RNA for RNA codewords. J. Mol. Biol., 35, 1-12 (1968).
57. Levin, J.G. and Nirenberg, M.: RNA codons and protein synthesis. XIII. RNA codon recognition by deacylated tRNA and aminoacyl tRNA. J. Mol. Biol., 34: 467-480 (1968).
58. Caskey, C.T., Beaudet, A. and Nirenberg, M.: RNA codons and protein synthesis. 15. Dissimilar responses of mammalian and bacterial transfer RNA fractions to mRNA codons. J. Mol. Biol., 37: 99-118 (1968).
59. Wilcox, M. and Nirenberg, M.: Transfer RNA as a cofactor coupling amino acid synthesis with that of protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 61: 229-236 (1968) .
60. Caskey, C.T., Tompkins, R., Scolnick, E., Caryk, T. and Nirenberg, M.: Sequential translation of trinucleotidecodons for the initiation and termination of protein synthesis. Science, 162: 135-138 (1968).
61. Scolnick, E., Tompkins, R., Caskey, T. and Nirenberg, M.: Release factors differing in specificity for terminator codons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 61: 768-774 (1968).
62. Nirenberg, M.: Genetic Memory. J. Am. Med. Assn., 206: 1973-1977 (1968).
63. Nirenberg, M.: The Genetic Code in Les Prix Nobel en 1968. Nobel Foundation, Stockholm, P.A. Norstedt and So ner, pp. 221-241, (1969).
64. Nirenberg, M.W.: On the translation of the genetic code in Biology and Physical Sciences, Devons, S. (Ed.), N.Y., Columbia University Press, 1969, pp. 57-73, (1969).
65. Marshall, R. and Nirenberg, M.: RNA codons recognized by transfer RNA from amphibian embryos and adults. Developmental Biology, 19: 1-11 (1969).
66. Gartland, W.J., Ishida, T., Sueoka, N. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Coding properties of two conformations of tryptophanyl-tRNA in Escherichia coli. J. Mol. Biol., 44: 403-413 (1969).
67. Nelson, P., Ruffner, W. and Nirenberg, M.: Neuronal tumor cells with excitable membranes grown in vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 64: 1004-1010 (1969).
68. Nirenberg, Von M. . Der genetische code (Nobel-Vortrag) . Angew. Chemie, 81: 1017-1027 (1969).
69. Seeds, N.W., Gilman, A.G., Amano, T. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Regulation of axon formation by clonal lines of a neuronal tumor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 66: 160-167 (1970).
70. Nirenberg, M.:. The flow of information from gene to protein in Aspects of Protein Biosynthesis, Part A., Anfinsen, C.B., Jr., (Ed.) . New York, Academic Press, Inc. . pp. 215-246, 1970.
71. Blume, A., Gilbert, F., Wilson, S., Farber, J., Rosenberg, R. and Nirenberg, M.: Regulation of acetylcholinesterase in neuroblastoma cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 67: 786-792 (1970).
72. Smrt, J., Kemper, W., Caskey, T. and Nirenberg, M.: Template activity of modified terminator codons. J. Biol. Chem., 245: 2753-2757 (1970).
73. Kan, J., Nirenberg, M.W. and Sueoka, N.: Coding specificity of Escherichia coli leucine transfer ribonucleic acids and effect of bacteriophage To infection. J. Mol. Biol., 52: 179-193 (1970).
74. Hatfield, D. and Nirenberg, M.: Binding of radioactive oligonucleotides to ribosomes. Biochem., 10: 4318-4323 (1971).
75. Minna, J., Nelson, P., Peacock, J., Glazer, D. and Nirenberg, M.: Genes for neuronal properties expressed in neuroblastoma x L cell hybrids. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 68: 234-239 (1971).
76. Gilman, A.G. and Nirenberg, M.: Effect of catecholamines on the adenosine 3':5'-cyclic monophosphate concentrations of clonal satellite cells of neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 68: 2165-2168 (1971).
77. Gilman, A.G. and Nirenberg, M.: Regulation of adenosine 3':5'-cyclic monophosphate metabolism in cultured neuroblastoma cells. Nature, 234: 356-358 (1971).
78. Amano, T., Richelson, E. and Nirenberg, M.: Neurotransmitter synthesis by neuroblastoma clones. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 69: 258-263 (1972).
79. Peacock, J., Minna, J., Nelson, P. and Nirenberg, M.: Use of aminopterin in selecting electrically active neuroblastoma cells. Experimental Cell Research, 73: 367-377 (1972).
80. Minna, J., Glazer, D. and Nirenberg, M.: Genetic dissection of neural properties using somatic cell hybrids. Nature New Biology, 235: 225-231 (1972).
81. Wilson, S.H., Schrier, B.K., Farber, J.L., Thompson, E.J., Rosenberg, R.N., Blume, A.J. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Markers for ne expression in cultured cell from the nervous system. J. Biol. Chem., 247: 3159-3169 (1972).
82. Vogel, Z., Sytkowsky, A.J. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Acetylcholine receptors of muscle grown in vitro. Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. USA, 69: 3180-3184.
83. Thompson, E.J., Wilson, S.H., Schuette, W.H., Whitehouse, W.C. a nd Nirenberg, M.W.: Measurement of the rate and velocity of movement by single heart cells in culture. Am. J. of Cardiology, 32: 162-166 (1973).
84. Catterall, W.A. and Nirenberg, M.: Sodium uptake associated with activation of action potential ionophores of cultured neuroblastoma muscle cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 70: 3759-3763 (1973).
85. Sytkowsky, A.J., Vogel, Z. and Nirenberg, M.W.: Development of acetylcholine receptor clusters on cultured muscle cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 70: 270-274 (1973) .
86. Greene, L.A., Sytkowsky, A.J., Vogel, Z. and Nirenberg, M.W.: a-Bungarotoxin used as a probe for acetylcholine receptors of cultured neurons. Nature, 243: 163-166 (1973).
87. Chalazonitis, A., Greene, L.A. and Nirenberg, M.: Electrophysiological characteristics of chick embryo sympathetic neurons in dissociated cell culture. Brain Research, 68: 235-252 (1974).
88A. Schrier, B.K., Wilson, S.H., Nirenberg, M.: Cultured cell systems and methods for neurobiology in Methods in Enzymology, Vol. 32, Part B, pp. 765-783, Fleischer, S. and Packer, L. (Eds.). Academic Press, New York (1974).
88B. Hamprecht, B., Amano, T. and Nirenberg, M.: Choline acetyltransferase. Assay 2. Ibid. pp. 783-785 (1974).
88C. Richelson, E. and Nirenberg, M. Tyrosine hydroxylase assay. Ibid. pp. 785-788 (1974).
89. Klee, W.A. and Nirenberg, M.: A neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid cell line with morphine receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 71: 3474-3477 (1974).
90. Breakefield, X.O. and Nirenberg, M.: Selection for neuroblastoma cells that synthesize certain transmitters. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 71: 2530-2533 (1974) .
91. Klee, W.A., Sharma, S.K. and Nirenberg, M.: Opiate receptors as regulators of adenylate cyclase. Life Sci., 16: 1869-1874 (1975), in The Opiate Narcotics., Neurochemical Mechanisms in Analgesia and Dependence. Goldstein,A. et al. (Eds.), Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 117-122 (1975).
92. Thompson, E.J., Griffith, J.M., Schoenberg, D.G. and Nirenberg, M.W.: An improved method for extracellular recording of action potentials from single cultured neuroblastoma. cells. Med. Biol. Eng., 13, 104-106 (1975).
93. Sharma, S.K., Nirenberg, M. and Klee, W.A.: Morphine receptors as regulators of adenylate cyclase activity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 72: 590-594 (1975).
94. Sharma, S.K., Klee, W.A. and Nirenberg, M.: Dual regulation of adenylate cyclase accounts for narcotic dependence and tolerance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 72: 3092-3096 (1975)
95. Matsuzawa, H. and Nirenberg, M.: Receptor-mediated shifts in cGMP and cAMP levels in neuroblastoma. cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 72: 3472-3476 (1975).
96. Nirenberg, M.W.: Coding of neural information by neuroblastoma. cells. in Talwar, G.P. (Ed.): Regulation of Growth and Differentiated Function in Eukaryote Cells. New York, Raven Press, pp. 537-539 (1975).
97. Greene, L.A., Shain, W., Chalazonitis, A., Breakefield, X., Minna, J., Coon, H.G. and Nirenberg, M.: Neuronal properties of hybrid neuroblastoma x sympathetic ganglion cells. Proc. NaLl. Acad. Sci. USA, 72: 4923-4927 (1975).
98. Nelson, P., Christian, C. and Nirenberg, M.: Synapse formation between clonal neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid cells and striated muscle cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 73: 123-127 (1976).
99. Vogel, Z. and Nirenberg, M.: Localization of acetylcholine receptors during synaptogenesis in retina. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 73: 1806-1810 (1976).
100. Vogel, Z. Daniels, M.P. and Nirenberg, M.: Synapse and acetylcholine receptor synthesis by neurons dissociated from retina. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 73: 2370-2374 (1976).
101. Lampert, A., Nirenberg, M. and Klee, W.A.: Tolerance and dependence evoked by an endogenous opiate peptide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 73: 3165-3167 (1976).
102. Klee, W.A. and Nirenberg, M.: Mode of action of endogenous opiate peptides. Nature, 263: 609-612 (1976).
103. De Mello, F.G., Bachrach, U. and Nirenberg, M.: Ornithine and glutamic acid decarboxylase activities in the developing chick retina. J. Neurochem., 27: 847-851 (1976) .
104. Puro, D.G. and Nirenberg, M.: On the specificity of synapse formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 73: 3544-3548 (1976).
105. Klee, W.A., Lampert, A. and Nirenberg, M.: Dual regulation of adenylate cyclase by endogenous opiate peptides in Kosterlitz, H. (Ed.): Opiates and Endogenous Opioid Peptides. Amsterdam, Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press, 1976, pp. 153-159.
106. Goldstein, A., Cox, B.M., Klee, W.A. and Nirenberg, M.: Endorphin from pituitary inhibits cyclic AMP formation in homogenates of neuroblastoma. x glioma hybrid cells. Nature, 265: 362-363 (1977).
107. Chalazonitis, A., Minna, J.D. and Nirenberg, M.: Expression and properties of acetylcholine receptors in several clones of mouse neuroblastoma x L cell somatic hybrids. Exp. Cell Res., 105: 269-280 (1977).
108. Christian, C.N., Nelson, P.G., Peacock, J. and Nirenberg, M.: Synapse formation between two clonal cell lines. Science, 196: 995-998 (1977).
109. Agarwal, N.S., Hruby, V.J., Katz, R., Klee, W. and Nirenberg, M.: Synthesis of leucine enkephalin derivatives: Structurefunction studies. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 76: 129-135 (1977).
110. Giagnoni, G., Sabol, S.L. and Nirenberg, M.: Synthesis of opiate peptides by a clonal pituitary tumor cell line. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 74: 2259-2263 (1977).
111. Sharma, S.K., Klee, W.A. and Nirenberg, M.: Opiate-dependent modulation of adenylate cyclase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 74: 3365-3369 (1977).
112. Puro, D.G., De Mello, F.G. and Nirenberg, M.: Synapse turnover: the formation and termination of transient synapses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 74: 4977-4981 (1977).
113. Sugiyama, H., Daniels, M.P. and Nirenberg, M.: Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors of the developing retina. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 74: 5524-5528 (1977).
114. McGee, R., Simpson, P., Christian, C., Mata, M., Nelson, P. and Nirenberg, M.: Regulation of acetylcholine release from neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 75: 1314-1318 (1978).
115. Nathanson, N.M., Klein, W.L. and Nirenberg, M.: Regulation of adenylate cyclase activity mediated by muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 75: 1788-1791 (1978).
116. Ruffolo, R.R., Jr., Eisenbarth, G.S., Thompson, J.M. and Nirenberg, M.: Synapse turnover: A mechanism for acquiring synaptic specificity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 75: 2281-2285 (1978).
117. MacDermot, J. and Nirenberg, M.: Turnover of opiate receptors in neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid cells. FEBS Lett., 90: 345-347 (1978).
118. Nirenberg, M.: Studies on synapse formation and opiate dependence. National Cancer Institute Monograph, 48: 339-342 (1978).
119. Nelson, P.G., Christian, C.N., Daniels, M.P., Henkart, M., Bullock, P., Mullinax, D. and Nirenberg, M.: Formation of synapses between cells of a neuroblastoma x glioma. hybrid clone and mouse myotubes. Brain Research, 147: 245-259 (1978).
120. Christian, C.N., Nelson, P.G., Bullock, P., Mullinax, D. and Nirenberg, M.: Pharmacologic responses of cells of a neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid clone and modulation of synapses between hybrid cells and mouse myotubes. Brain Research, 147: 261-276 (1978).
121. Eisenbarth, G.S., Ruffolo, R.R., Walsh, F.S. and Nirenberg, M.: Lactose sensitive lectin of chick retina and spinal cord. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 83: 1246-1252 (1978).
122. Burgermeister, W., Kline, W.L., Nirenberg, M. and Witkop, B.: Comparative binding studies with cholinergic ligands and histrionicotoxin at muscarinic receptors of neural cell lines. J. Mol. Pharm., 14: 751-767 (1978).
123. Sabol, S.L. and Nirenberg, M.: Regulation of adenylate cyclase of neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid cells by a-adrenergic receptors, I. Inhibition of adenylate cyclase mediated by areceptors. J. Biol. Chem., 254: 1913-1920 (1979).
124. Sabol, S.L. and Nirenberg, M.: Regulation of adenylate cyclase of neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid cells by a- adrenergic receptors, II. Long-lived increase of adenylate cyclase activity mediated by a-receptors. J. Biol. Chem., 254: 1921-1926 (1979).
125. MacDermot, J., Higashida, H., Wilson, S.P. Matsuzawa, H., Minna, J. and Nirenberg, M.: Adenylate cyclase and acetylcholine release regulated by separate serotonin receptors of somatic cell hybrids. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 76: 1135-1139 (1979).
126. Eisenbarth, G.S., Walsh, F.S. and Nirenberg, M.: Monoclonal antibody to a plasma membrane antigen of neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 76: 4913-4917 (1979).
127. Klein, W.L., Nathanson, N. and Nirenberg, M.: Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors regulation by accelerated rate of receptor loss. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 90: 506-512 (1979).
128. Wilkening, D. and Nirenberg, M.: Lipid requirement for longlived morphine-dependent activation of adenylate cyclase of neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid cells. J. Neurochem., 34: 321-326 (1980).
129. Nirenberg, M., Wilson, S., Higashida, H., Thompson, J., Eisenbarth, G., Walsh, F., Rotter, A., Kenimer, J. and Sabol, S.: Synapse plasticity in Cellules, Nerveuses, Transmetteurs et Comportement, Edited by Rita Levi - Montalcini, Pontificiae Academiae Scientarvm Scripta Varia, 45: 123-127 (1980) .
130. McGee, R., Jr., Smith, C., Christian, C., Mata, M., Nelson, P. and Nirenberg, M.: A new capillary tube system for measuring the uptake and release of materials from cultured cells. Anal.Biochem., 101: 320-326 (1980).
131. Wilkening, D., Sabol, S.L. and Nirenberg, M.: Control of opiate receptor-adenylate cyclase interactions by calcium ions and guano sine . 5'- triphosphate. Brain Research, 189: 459-466 (1980)
132A Trisler, G.D . Schneider, M.D. and Nirenberg, M.: A topographic gradient of molecules in retina can be used to identify neuron position. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 78: 2145-2149 (1981). This paper also has been reproduced in the following:
132B Trisler, G. David, Michael D. Schneider and Marshall Nirenberg: A topographic gradient of molecules in retina can be used to identify neuron position in Patterson, P.H. and Purves, D. (Ed.) . Readings In Developmental Neurobiology. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1982, pp. 513-517.
133. Trisler, G.D., Schneider, M.D. and Nirenberg, M.: Topographic gradient of cell-membrane molecules in avian neural retina detected with monoclonal antibody in Ocular Size and Shape: Regulation During Development, Hilfer, S.R. and Sheffield, J.B. (Eds.), Springer -Ver lag, N.Y., p. 141-161 (1981).
134. De Blas, A.L., Busis, N.A. and Nirenberg, M.: Monoclonal antibodies to synaptosomal membrane molecules in Monoclonal Antibodies Against Neuronal Antigens, McKay, R., Raff, M.C. and Reichardt, L.F. (Ed.), Cold Spring Harbor Reports in the Neurosciences Vol. 2, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, N.Y. (1981), pp. 181-191.
135. Trisler, G.D., Schneider, M.D., Moskal, J.R. and Nirenberg, M.: A gradient of molecules in avian retina with dorsoventral polarity in Monoclonal Antibodies Against Neuronal Antigens, McKay, R., Raff, M.C. and Reichardt, L.F. (Ed.), Cold Spring Harbor Reports in the Neurosciences Vol. 2, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, N.Y. (1981), pp. 231-257.
136. Kenimer, J. and Nirenberg, M. . Desensitization of adenylate cyclase to prostaglandin El or 2-Chloroadenosine. Mol. Pharm., 20: 585-591 (1981)
137. Hirata, F., Del Carmine, R., Nelson, C.A., Axelrod, J., Schiffmann, E., Warabi, A., De Blas, A.L., Nirenberg, M., Manganiello, V., Vaughan, M., Kumagai, S., Green, I., Decker, J.L., and Steinberg, A.D.: Presence of autoantibody for phospholipase inhibitory protein, lipmodulin, in patients with rheumatic diseases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 78: 3190-3194 (1981).
138. Nirenberg, M. Synapse Plasticity in Proceedings of the Symposium On Trends In Bioassay methodology: in Vivo, In Vitro And Mathematical Approaches, NIH Publication No. 82-2382, 1981, pp 201-207.
139. Trisler, G.D., M.D. Schneider, J.R. Moskal and M. Nirenberg: Molecules that define a dorsal-ventral axis of retina can be used to identify cell position in Clayton, R.M. and Truman, D.E.S. (Ed.) . Stability and Switching in Cellular Differentiation. Plenum Press, New York, 1982, pp. 123-127.
140. Trisler, G.D., Schneider, M.D., Moskal, J.R., and Nirenberg, M. Molecules that Define a Dorsal-Ventral Axis of Retina can be Used to Identify Cell Position. in Problems of Normal and Genetically Abnormal Retinas. (Eds) Clayton, R.M., Haywood, J., Reading, H.W., and Wright, A. Academic Press, 61-63 (1982).
141. Thompson, Jeffrey M., Eisenbarth, George S., Ruffolo, Jr., Robert R., and Nirenberg, M. Synapse Selection Based on Differences In Synapse Turnover International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 1: 25-30 (1983).
142. Nirenberg, M., Wilson, S., Higashida, H., Rotter, A., Krueger, K., Busis, N., Ray, R., Kenimer, K., Adler, M. and Fukui, H. Synapse Formation by Neuroblastoma Hybrid Cells in Molecular Neurobiology. The 48th Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology, XLVIII: 707-715 (1983).
143. Nirenberg, M., Wilson, S., Higbashida, H., Rotter, A., Krueger, K., Busis, N., Ray, R., Kenimer, J.G., and Adler, M.: Modulation of Synapse Formation by Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate. Science 222, 794-799. (1983).
144. Nirenberg, M., Wilson, S., Higashida, H., Rotter, A., Krueger, K., Busis, N., Ray, R., Kenimer, J.G. and Adler, M. Modulation of Synapse Formation by Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate. (1984) in Biotechnology and Biological Frontiers. (Abelson, Philip H., ed.) pp 442-453, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Wash., D.C. This article was published originally in Science 222, 794-799. (1983)
145. Trisler, D., Grunwald, G., Moskal, J., Darveniza, P., and Nirenberg, M.: Molecules That Identify Cell Types Or Position In The Retina in Neuroimmunology, P. Behan and F. Spreafico eds. . 89-97, Raven Press, (1984) .
146. DeBlas, A., Adler, M., Shih, M., Chiang, P., Cantoni, G., and Nirenberg, M.: Novel Inhibitors of CDP-Choline Synthesis, Action Potential Calcium Channels, and Stimuls-Secretion Coupling. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 81: 4353- 4357 (1984).
147. Busis, N., Daniels, M.P., Bauer, H.C., Pudimat, P.A., Sonderegger, P., Schaffner, A.E. and Nirenberg, M.: Three Cholinergic Neuroblastoma Hybrid Cell Lines that Form Few Synapses on Myotubes are Deficient in Acetylcholine Receptor Aggregation Molecules and Large Dense Core Vesicles. Brain Research. 324: 201-210. (1984).
148. Fredman, P., Magnani, J.L., Grunwald, G.B., Trisler, D., Nirenberg, M. and Ginsburg, V. Developmental Regulation of Brains and Retinas in Cellular and Pathological Aspects of Gl_ycoconjugate Metabolism (H. Dreyfus, Ed.), Plenum Press, N.Y., October, 1984.
149. Strauss, W.L. and Nirenberg, M.: Inhibition of Choline Acetyltrasferase by Monoclonal Antibodies. Journal of Neuroscience 5: 175-180 (1985).
150. Grunwald, G.B., Gierschik, P., Nirenberg, M., and Spiegel, A.: Detection of a-Transducin in Retinal Rods but not Cones. Science 231: 856-859, 1986.
151. Higashida, H., Streaty, R.A., Klee, W., and Nirenberg, M.: Bradykinin Activated Transmembrane Signals are Coupled via No, or N. to Production of Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate, a Second Messenger in NG108-15 Neuroblastoma-Glioma. Hybrid cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 83: 942-946 (1986).
152. Moskal, J.R., Trisler, D., Schneider, M.D., and Nirenberg, M.: Purification of a Membrane Protein Distributed in a Topographic Gradient in Chicken Retina. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 83: 4730-4733 (1986).
153. Dubois, C., Magnani, J.L., Grunwald, G.B., Spitalnik, S.L., Trisler, G.D., Nirenberg, M., and Ginsburg, V.: Monoclonal Antibody 18B8, which Detects Synapse-associated Antigens, Binds to Ganglioside G13 (1, 3 (NeuAc)3LacCer) . J. Biol. Chem. 261: 3826-3830 (1986).
154. Bray, P., Carter, A., Simons, C., Guo, V., Puckett, C., Kamholz, J., Spiegel, A., and Nirenberg, M.: Human cDNA Clones for Four Species of G. Signal Transduction Protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 83: 8893-8897 (1986).
155. Bray, P., Carter, A., Guo, V., Puckett, C., Kamholz, J., Spiegel, A., and Nirenberg, M.: Human cDNA Clones for an aSubunit of Gi Signal . transduction Protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 84: 5115-5119 (1987).
156. Fitzpatrick, L.A., Chin, H., Nirenberg, M., and Aurbach, G.D.: Antibodies to an a-subunit of Skeletal Muscle Calcium Channels Regulate Parathyroid Cell Secretion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 85: 2115-2119 (1988).
157. Kim, Y. and Nirenberg, M.: Drosophila NK-homeobox Genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 7716-7720 (1989).
158. Nazarali, A., Kim, Y., and Nirenberg, M.: Hox 1.11 and Hox-4.9 Homeobox Genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 89: 2883-2887 (1992)
159. Hara, Y., Rovescalli, A., Kim, Y., and Nirenberg, M.: Structure and Evolution of Four POU-Domain Genes Expressed in Mouse Brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. . USA 89: 3280-3284 (1992) .
160. Tan, D., Ferrante, J., Nazarali, A., Shao, X., Kozak, C.A., Guo, V., and Nirenberg, M.: Murine Hox-1.11 Homeobox Gene Structure and Expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 89: 6280-6284 (1992).
161. Asoh, S., Le-Kwon, W., Mouradian, M.M., and Nirenberg, M.: Selection of DNA Clones with Enhancer Sequences. Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci., USA 91: 6982-6986 (1994).
162. Tsao, D.H.H., Gruschus, J.M., Wang, L.-H., Nirenberg, M., and Ferretti, J.A.: Elongation of Helix III of the NK-2 Homeodomain upon Binding to DNA: A Secondary Structure Study of NMR. Biochemistry. 33: 15053-15060 (1994).
163. Nirenberg, M., Nakayama, K., Nakayama, N., Kim, Y., Mellerick, D., Wang, L.H., Webber, K.O., and Lad, R.: The NK-2 Homeobox Gene and the Early Development of the Central Nervous System of Drosophila in Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. 758: 224-242 (1995) .
164. Kamp, T.J., Mitas, M., Fields, K.L., Asoh, S., Chin, H., Marban, E., and Nirenberg, M.: Transcriptional Regulation of the Neuronal L-Type Calcium Channel a 1D Subunit Gene. Cell. and Mol. Neurobiology. 15: 307-326 (1995).
165. Mellerick, D.M., and Nirenberg, M.: Dorsal-Ventral Patterning Genes Restrict NK-2 Homeobox Gene Expression to the Ventral Half of the Central Nervous System of Drosophila Embryos. Developmental Biology. 171: 306-316 (1995).
166. Tsao, D.H.H., Gruschus, J.M., Wang, L.-H., Nirenberg, M., and Ferretti, J.A.: The Three-Dimensional Solution Structure of the NK-2 Homeodomain from Drosophila. J. Mol. Biol. 251: 297-307 (1995).
167. Tan, D.-P., Shao, X., Pu, L., Guo, V., and Nirenberg, M: Sequence and Expression of the Murine Hoxd-3 Homeobox Gene. Proc. Nat'l. Acad. Sci., USA, 93: 8247-8252 (1996).
168. Rovescalli, A.C., Asoh, S., and Nirenberg, M.: Cloning and Characterization of Four Murine Homeobox Genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, USA, 93: 10691-10696 (1996).
169. Li, H.-P., Liu, Z.-M., and Nirenberg, M.: Kinesin-73 in the nervous system of Drosophila embryos. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 1086-1091 (1997).
170. Gruschus, J.M., Tsao, D.D.H., Wang, L.-H., Nirenberg, M., and Ferretti, J.A.: Interaction of the vnd/NK-2 Homeodomain with DNA by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: Basis of Binding Specificity Biochemistry 36: 5372-5380 (1997) .
171. Van Schaick, H.S.A., Smidtt, M.P., Rovescalli, A.C., Luijten, M., van der Kleij, A.A.M., Asoh, S., Kozak, C.A., Nirenberg, M., and Burbach, J.P.H.: Homeobox Gene Prx3 Expression in Rodent Brain and Extraneural Tissues. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 94: 12993-12998 (1997).
172. Weiler,S., Gruschus, J.M., Tsao, D.H.H., Yu, L., Wang,L.-H., Nirenberg, M., and Ferretti, J.A.: Site-directed Mutations in the vnd/NK-2 Homeodomain: Basis of Variations in Structure and Sequence-Specific DNA Binding. J. Biol. Chem., 273: 10994-11000 (1998).
173. Saunders, H.-M., Koizumi, K., Odenwald, W., and Nirenberg, M.: Neuroblast Pattern Formation: Regulatory DNA that Confers the vnd/NK-2 Homeobox Gene Pattern on a Reporter Gene in Transgenic Lines of Drosophila. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95: 8316-8321 (1998).
174. Xiang, B., Weiler, S., Nirenberg, M., and Ferretti, J.A.: Structural Basis of an Embryonically Lethal Single Ala - 4 Thr Mutation in the vnd/NK-2 homeodomain. Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 7412- 7416 (1998).
175. Gruschus, J.M., Tsao, D.H.H., Wang, L.-H., Nirenberg, M., and Feretti, J.A.: The Three-dimensional Structure of the vnd/NK-2 Homeodomain-DNA Complex by NMR Spectroscopy. J. Mol. Biol. 289: 529-545 (1999).
176. Rovescalli, A.C., Cinquanta, M., Ferrante, J., Kozak, C.A., and Nirenberg, M.: The Mouse Nkx-1.2 Gene: Alternative Splicing at Canonical and Noncanonical Splice Sites. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 1982-1987 (2000).
177. Cinquanta, M., Rovescalli, A., Kozak, C., and Nirenberg, M.: Mouse Sebox homeobox gene expression in skin, brain, oocytes, and two-cell embryos. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 8904-8909 (2000).
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National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's Laboratory of Biochemical Genetics: Dr. Marshall Nirenberg, Chief. Read a brief summary of current research under way in Dr. Nirenberg's lab at NHLBI.
The DeWitt Stetten, Jr. Museum of Medical Research collects and exhibits biomedical research instruments and technologies and other artifacts related to the history of the National Institutes of Health.
The Human Genome Project, supported by the National Human Genome Research Institute, works to map the nucleotide sequence of humans and other research organisms, determine the genes within the genome and study the overall structure, organization and function of the human genetic code. The site provides news regarding the Institute's research, information on research programs, sequencing policy and technology, as well as links to other genetic and genomic resources.
The Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) Research Program is a part of the Division of Extramural Research, within the National Human Genome Research Institute, which studies the social, legal and ethical implications of genetic research. The site has information on ELSI research programs, grants, conferences and publications, as well as links to other ELSI resources and programs.
Private Organizations
The Nobel Foundation offers visitors a virtual tour of the Nobel Foundation, a timeline of its world and Nobel history, and information on award recipients. The site also has information on the Foundation's centennial exhibitions, symposia, and events.
Nobel e-Museum Website's presentation of: "DNA to RNA to Protein"
Books of related information
Who Wrote the Book of Life? A History of the Genetic Code by Lily Kay; Stanford University Press, 2000
The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology by Horace Freeland Judson; Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; revised and expanded edition, 1996
A Century of DNA: A History of the Discovery of the Structure and Function of the Genetic Substance by Franklin Portugal
Molecular Biology of the Gene, 4th Edition. James D.Watson; Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1997
Toward the Habit of Truth: A Life in Science (Commonwealth Fund Book Program) by Mahlon Hoagland
Journals
Annals of Human Genetics has been publishing research concerned with human genetics or inheritance since 1925. Research focuses on biochemistry, molecular genetics, gene mapping or other closely related fields of study. The site offers links to other Cambridge University Press publications, tables of content, subscription information and a sample copy of the journal.
Gene publishes information regarding genes, chromosomes, chromatin and genomes and all structural and functional aspects. The site includes author and keyword indices, tables of content, abstracts and full text articles.
Genetical Research Published by Cambridge Press, Genetical Research's articles focus on the genetic aspects of molecular biology, quantitative and population biology, developmental and plant biology. The site provides authors and audience with publishing information, tables of contents and links to other Cambridge Press journals and books.
Human Molecular Genetics provides research articles on gene mapping, molecular aspects of genetics, biochemical genetics, structure and function, including sections for articles, reports and commentary. In addition to information on the journal, the site also has links to related genetics sites.
Nature Genetics Nature Genetics is one of eight Nature Journals, all of which are accessible through the site, and publishes commentaries, reviews, and articles within the scope of genetics and related technology, with focus on mechanism and model research. The site provides information based on visitors' access level, ranging from basic journal information, Nature updates and tables of contents, to abstracts, e-mail alerts, full text articles, news and reviews.
Trends in Genetics, published by Elsevier Science, contains research and review material in the fields of developmental biology and genetics. The site has information on the journal as well as links to other Elsevier publications, an article index, and tables of contents.